The front line in the battle against extinction (Zoos)

Member Name: crispy

Product:	Zoos
Date:	28/09/01 (3254 review reads)
Rating:

Advantages: save endangered species from extinction, educate the public

Disadvantages: conditions can vary, some are still just menageries

Animals have been kept in captivity for thousands of years, however it is only very recently that this has been for the purpose of their conservation. This opinion examines the development of the zoo through history, and goes on to consider the roles zoos play in the conservation of animal species, and their importance.


History of zoos
===============

Man has kept animals in captivity since the very beginning of civilisation. The Egyptians are known to have kept animals, as their remains have been found in tombs dating back to 2000 B.C. Animal collections were also found at around 1000 B.C. in China, during the Chou Dynasty. The Romans also kept animals for entertainment involving gladiatorial combat or the massacring of prisoners, such as the Christians.

Monarchs throughout history have maintained menageries of exotic wild animals since the 1100s. Henry I of England kept a menagerie in Oxfordshire, which was later transferred to The Tower Of London; and Philip VI of France established a menagerie in Paris in 1333. Probably the most well known of all the menageries established in Europe was the Menagerie du Parc, founded by Louis XIV (1643-1714) in Versailles. This was the first proper zoological garden, as it featured animal exhibits within ornamental gardens, rather than displayed in bare cages. The gardens fell into disrepair, however, and Louis passed them on to his sons. They then thrived until 1789, when it was ransacked by mobs during the Revolution, and most of the animals were hunted and killed. The remainder were collected in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, which opened in 1793 in conjunction with the re-establishment of the Paris museum of natural history. The Jardin des Plantes was organised with the famous naturalist Geoffroy Saint Hilaire as its head, and in 1794 he set up the first course of zoology ever given in France, based on the collection of animals in the Jardin. This provided the foundation of the modern z
oos we are familiar with today.

In 1826 Sir Stamford Raffles founded the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), as a charity devoted to conservation and education. The ZSL opened London Zoo in 1828, which was to be the world's first scientific zoo. London Zoo first admitted visitors in 1831, to aid funding; and in 1931 Whipsnade Wild Animal Park opened, which was the world's first open zoological park. Now, most major cities have a zoo, and they still prove to be hugely popular with the public, proving that people now still like to marvel at exotic animals just as they did in the 11th Century.


Roles of zoos in conservation
=============================

The role of the zoo has changed dramatically in the last hundred years. They are no longer merely collections of exotic animals held in cramped cages for the entertainment of the general public, but have vital roles to play in the conservation of endangered species. Modern zoos have four main functions:

1) Conservation and preservation;
2) Education
3) Research
4) Recreation


1) Conservation and Preservation
--------------------------------

The main role of zoos in conservation is the captive breeding, and eventual reintroduction into the wild, of endangered species. All of the other roles listed above are essentially subsidiary activities that improve and facilitate the ability of the zoo to carry out this function.

The contributions that zoos have already made to the conservation of biodiversity are dramatic. Zoo populations are now the only representatives of several species, including the California condor (Cymnogyps californianus) and possibly the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). At least 18 species have been reintroduced into the wild after captive propagation, and in at least six cases - the Pere David deer (Elaphurus idavidianus), Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalski), the red wolf (Canis rufus), the
Arabian oryx (Oryx leucorx), the American bison (Bison bison), the Guam kingfisher (Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina) and the Guam rail (Rallus owstoni), the species were extinct in the wild at the time of reintroduction. In the case of the Pere David deer, it had in fact been extinct for some 800 years. Numerous other species not completely lost from the wild, such as the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and the alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex), have been reintroduced to portions of their range from which they were extirpated.


--==The need for conservation - a case study==--

A good example of the need for conservation is the Sumatran tiger. There were eight subspecies of tiger, but three of these are already extinct. Tigers are seriously threatened in the wild, partly through disappearance of their habitat, but mainly because they are hunted for parts of their body. Tiger bones, penises, gall bladders and eyes are highly prized in traditional oriental medicine, and the wild populations of Sumatran tigers have decreased to the point that there are only around 400-500 individuals left in the wild. London Zoo plays an extremely important part in the conservation of the Sumatran tiger - it holds the European studbook for Sumatran tigers and co-ordinates the breeding programme. London Zoo's female Sumatran tiger is called Raika. The studbook was searched the computer studbook for a male of the right breeding age that was as distantly related to Raika as possible. The computer is able to give each tiger a 'mean kinship number', which indicates each individual's degree of relatedness to every other tiger on the programme. The species co-ordinator selected Filon, a six-year old male, born in Warsaw, but living at Dudley Zoo where he has sired cubs with Raika's older sister. Raika and Filon's meeting went well, and tiger cubs are expected at London Zoo in the near future.


--==An example of a successful programme==-
-

The Partula snails from the French Polynesian islands are a good example of a successful captive breeding and reintroduction programme. The Partula tree snails are a family of small molluscs that feed on the rotting stems of hibiscus plants. Unusual among snails, they do not lay eggs, but give birth to live young - often a single offspring complete with a minute shell only 3mm long. With no mammals, reptiles or amphibians endemic to these islands, there were few natural predators, and the Partula speciated widely. In the 1960s the giant African land snail was introduced to the islands and farmed for food. This quickly spread into the wild, and caused widespread crop damage. Yet another snail was introduced as a pest control in 1978. It was Euglandina rosea, a carnivorous snail with a voracious appetite. Euglandina unfortunately chose to prey upon the tiny Partula rather than the giant African land snail, ten times its size. Most species of Partula were wiped out, some within 10 years. However, just before they became extinct in the wild, keepers from London Zoo joined expeditions to the islands to rescue the last few survivors. In 1994, Zoo staff participated in an international expedition to Polynesia to construct the world's first wildlife reserve for snails. Deep in the rainforest, a Euglandina-proof barrier was constructed. Three hundred Zoo-bred Partula snails were released into the 20 sq metre reserve. Many more reserves are planned for the future. Today, London Zoo's Invertebrate Conservation Centre cares for some 2,000 snails and co-ordinates the international Partula breeding programme for zoos and universities around the world.


--==There is a limit...==--

There are an estimated 500,000 mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians in captivity in zoos throughout the world. However, the potential role of zoos as a site for preserving species over the long term is limited by both space and expense, particularly in the cas
e of vertebrates. For example, in the United States, zoos contain self-sustaining populations of a total of only 96 species (some of them threatened). Even if roughly one-half of the spaces in all the world's zoos were suitable for captive propagation of threatened species and if 500 members of each species were maintained, only 500 species could be kept alive and healthy in captivity.

This sobering calculation aside, the contribution of zoos to biodiversity conservation is likely to exceed this figure for two reasons. First, zoo managers generally consider a smaller population of roughly 100 to 150 individuals per species enough for long-term captive propagation. Deleterious inbreeding effects are still negligible at this population size, and, with proper genetic management, more than half of the genetic diversity of the species can be preserved for at least 100 generations. At these smaller population sizes, zoos could sustain roughly 900 species. Secondly, and more important, zoos with endangered species are shifting their emphasis from long-term holding to the return of animals to the wild within two or three captive generations. A number of endangered species, including the black-footed ferret, red wolf, Guam rail, Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata), Mauritius pink pigeon (Nesoenas mayeri), and the whooping crane, are being managed through such programs. Nevertheless, it is currently estimated that only 26 of 274 species of rare mammals in captivity are maintaining self-sustaining populations.


--==Improving the odds==--

Fortunately, this state of affairs can improve. Ongoing research has already led to significant advances in technologies for captive propagation, including artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and the genetic management of small captive populations. Germplasm storage techniques, including long-term storage of embryos, have also improved considerably. Embryo transfer, in particular, has a tremendous p
otential for use in captive breeding as it allows the introduction of new bloodlines into captive populations without transporting adults, and any diseases they might carry, between zoos or between wild populations and zoos. Long-term cryogenic storage of embryos has become almost routine for some species, such as the mouse, rabbit, and cow; but the technology is only beginning to be experimentally applied to captive species in zoos.

Other new findings and techniques also hold promise. Improved management of the genetics of small captive populations has also made captive breeding easier by making progress with solving some of the problems associated with inbreeding, including decreased fertility and high juvenile mortality. Advances in the theory of population genetics and improved data management are now improving the genetic management of captive populations. In 1973, the computerized International Species Inventory System (ISIS) was developed to catalogue genealogical information on individual animals in some 326 zoos. Mating can in this way be arranged by computer to ensure that genetic diversity is preserved and inbreeding is minimized.


--==A better solution?==--

A second, and more important, problem with ex situ conservation is that it is extremely expensive. It is estimated, for example, that it is around 50 times more expensive to maintain African elephants and black rhinos in captivity than it would be to maintain the same number of individuals in East African national parks. It is therefore important, and economically sensible, for zoos to also invest in habitat conservation and the in situ conservation of animal species. The Zoological Society of London recognises this, and is involved in many in situ conservation schemes around the world, such as the conservation of the Ethiopian wolf; the Royal Chitwan National Park in the Terai Valley of Nepal, which holds over 30% of the world's 2000 remaining Asian one-horned rh
inos in the wild, as well as tigers, gaur, sloth bear and other threatened species; the Akagera National Park in the north-eastern part of Rwanda, which is of major conservation importance for antelopes such as Roan, Sable and Sitatunga; and have managed the King Khalid Wildlife Research Centre in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for over 12 years.


--==The importance of zoos in conservation==--

How important is the role that zoos play in the conservation of endangered species? More than half of Americans believe it to be essential that zoos, aquariums and animal parks provide species preservation (60%); promote environmental conservation (58%); conduct research to learn more about animals (51%); and provide rehabilitation services for injured animals (59%). Eighty-one percent also believe it to be important to preserve animals in parks because so many are endangered in the wild, and seventy-nine percent say that most successes in saving endangered or declining species have come from work done in animal parks. This information comes from a recent Roper Organization survey conducted for Sea World. The Roper poll surveyed a nationally representative sample of 1,987 people on the issue of public attitudes toward aquariums, animal theme parks and zoos; and was conducted by personal in-home interviews in May 1992.

A UK initiative to put zoos at the heart of the drive to conserve wildlife was agreed by European Environment Ministers on the 17th June 1998. Welcoming the decision, at a meeting of the Environment Council in Luxembourg, Britain's Environment Minister, Angela Eagle, said: 'This is a major success for our Presidency, but more importantly, it is a big step forward in ensuring that zoos play their rightful role in the conservation of endangered species through public education, research and breeding programmes. It will also help to drive up standards of training for zoo staff and improving the experience of the visiting public.
' The decision means that Member States will be required to put in place national systems for the licensing and inspection of zoos and encourage and facilitate co-operation between each other.


2) Education
------------

Education is an important part of conservation, as it is vital to raise public awareness to the need for conservation. This is especially so in the case of less publicly popular, non-flagship species that receive less media attention, but may be in far greater need of conservation action than more popular animals.

The Roper Organisation survey also reports that ninety-one percent of the American public believes that zoos and aquariums play important roles in educating people about animals. The study revealed that 9 out of 10 (89%) feel that zoos and aquariums play an important role in educating children about wild animals; and a similar number (91%) agree that if it were not for these facilities, most children would not have the opportunity to see wild animals at all.


3) Research
-----------

Zoos also serve as centres for research into the physiology, ecology and behaviour of endangered species. This is obviously critical, as a greater understanding of a species will allow it to be cared for more effectively in captivity, and will also promote greater success with reintroductions and in situ conservation.


--==The importance of successful research...==--

An example highlighting the importance of research in the conservation of endangered species is the Serengeti Cheetah Project, one of the Zoological Society of London's longest running and most successful programmes. The cheetah is an endangered species with perhaps only 10,000 individuals remaining worldwide; one population lives in the Serengeti Plains in Tanzania. The Serengeti cheetah, like many others, is not faring well. Many cubs die in their first year and numbers are declining, mainly due to compet
ition with lions and hyenas. To understand the problems affecting the population, ZSL scientists have been following the lives of individual cheetah. This research will guide future management of cheetah in the Serengeti and support their conservation.

In 1988 the Jurong BirdPark in Singapore established its Breeding and Research Centre (BRC), which focuses its efforts on breeding highly valued and endangered species. The centre has 110 breeding aviaries, supported by nurseries, a laboratory, an egg-incubation room and food preparation facilities. Breeding at the BirdPark started immediately after it opened, with initial efforts focused on flamingos and Humboldt penguins, and in 1978, the BirdPark recorded its first successful breeding of the great Indian hornbill in captivity.


--==...and the problems caused by the lack of it!==--

The lack of detailed information on both captive and wild populations can cause problems for zoo managers. In the early 1980s, for example, the five remaining individuals of the dusky seaside sparrow were crossed with what was thought to be their closest relative, Scott's seaside sparrow, to produce hybrids with genetic compositions ranging from 50 to 87.5 percent dusky. But mitochondrial DNA analysis of the relationship of the dusky seaside sparrow to other subspecies later showed that the Scott's seaside sparrow is a relatively distant relative while the dusky is extremely closely related to four other subspecies. More thorough surveys of the genetic variation of both captive and wild populations will make such slip-ups in breeding programs in zoos and aquaria less common.


4) Recreation
-------------

The function of zoos as a source of recreation for the public is essential for conservation, as it is through the public, in the form of entry fees and donations, that zoos raise money to fund their conservation activities.

The spectacle of wild animals is as po
pular now as it ever was. Further results of the Roper survey show that eighty-five percent of Americans say their families enjoy attending animal parks to see animals close up. In addition, 9 of 10 (89%) said that although it would be best if people could see animals in their natural surroundings, zoos and aquariums present the only opportunity most will have to see these animals.


Conclusion
==========

While zoos have existed for hundreds of years, it is only very recently that they have become actively involved in the conservation of endangered species. However, they now play a very important part in conservation, through the captive breeding of species, research, and education of the general public. Zoos are only one part of the overall conservation effort, though, and it is important to remember that it is often far easier, cheaper, and more successful to preserve a species in its natural habitat than it is in captivity.




References
----------

Robert Bendiner, The Fall of the Wild, the Rise of the Zoo. Dutton, 1981.
Jeremy Cherfas, Zoo 2000: A Look Beyond the Bars. Parkwest, 1987.
Emily Hahn, Zoos, Martin Secker & Warburg, 1968.
V. H. Heywood, Global Biodiversity Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopaedia
http://www.wcs.org/science/conservationbio/zoo con.html
http://www.singapore-ca.com/at-zoo1.htm
http://www.cyberfair.org/dshs/_state.html
http://geology.anu.edu.au/~jaws/azc.html
http://www.londonzoo.co.uk/animal/index.html
http://www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cerc/bronx_zoo/z oo3.html
http://www.wri.org/wri/wri/biodiv/gbs-ix.html
http://www.wri.org/wri/wri/biodiv/ex-situ.html
http://www.wildnetafrica.com/bushcraft/dailyne ws/1997archive_3/archive_1997091 1_zoo.html

Summary: